Defining Assessments
A Parent Guide to
Achievement Testing
Commonly Used Tools in
Educational
Assessments
Portfolio Assessments
 |
|||||||||||||||||||||
What's New?
Fall
2005 Assessments
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A Parent Guide to Achievement
Testing
California is committed to accountability for the achievement of
all students. This guide answers questions about tests that
students take in school to measure achievement. These are not
tests to determine eligibility for special services, but tests that all students
take.
What is achievement testing?
Assessment involves collecting information about student knowledge, skills, or
abilities. Teachers collect information about students to make decisions about
how and what to teach. Watching a child solve a problem or play with others are
informal assessments. Giving an achievement test is a formal assessment. What
are typical kinds of tests?
Schools give various types of tests. Achievement tests measure what a child has
learned. Performance tests may require students to carry out a task, for example
a science experiment, or class project. Aptitude tests examine potential for
future academic work.
Why are tests given?
There are several reasons for testing your child. One reason is to show how much
a student has learned. Another purpose is to reveal how successfully a school
has educated students.
Tests tell the teacher about student progress. Results help teachers improve
instruction by customizing it to fit the child’s needs. School results allow the
public to compare schools or districts.
Hasn’t my son or daughter been tested enough already?
Much information was collected to see whether your child was eligible for
special education services. To continue meeting your child’s needs, on-going
testing is needed.
How can more testing help my son or daughter?
Teachers use tests to plan instruction for your child. Without test results,
teachers have less information to make decisions.
Doesn’t testing take time away from instruction?
It takes time to assess student learning and to make decisions. Tests help
teachers judge whether their standards are high enough and whether students are
learning what they need to succeed.
Where tests show weakness, teachers can provide the needed instruction. Teachers
can build on strengths identified by tests. Time spent on testing can improve
instruction. Time spent on assessment is time well spent.
What is statewide testing?
The state can require testing. For example, California’s Standardized Testing
and Reporting (STAR) Program requires that all students in grades 2 – 11 take
the Stanford Achievement Test, Ninth Edition each year in the Spring. This test
has various uses, including:
•comparing a child’s or school’s score to some group (for example, a nationally
representative group)
•showing how well the child or school has mastered the skills expected of all
students
•showing how well the child or school has attained proficiency Why should my
child take part in the statewide test?
If your child does not take the test, then teachers will not receive his or her
scores, and the results will not count for the school. Without test results,
teachers are less able to make good decisions about the instruction that your
child needs.
But won’t my child be at a disadvantage?
Students with disabilities can be appropriately included in statewide tests.
Many students with disabilities can take tests under the same conditions as
their non-disabled classmates. Some students with disabilities should take tests
with accommodations. A small number of students with significant disabilities
will not be able to take the same tests as other students, even with
accommodations. An alternate test is needed to include these students in the
school accountability system.
Accommodations used in the classroom should be used during testing, if
appropriate. The goal is to level the playing field. Accommodations should help
students with disabilities show what they can do. Students with disabilities can
take the STAR test with appropriate accommodations, as described in his or her
Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Certain types of accommodations are sometimes provided to students with special
needs. These accommodations are listed below:
•Braille Test. A visually impaired student may complete a Braille version of the
test.
•Flexible Scheduling. The test can be administered with changes in the standard
schedule for testing. These changes include extending the testing time or
extending the testing over more sessions.
•Flexible Setting. Tests can be administered in small groups, in a separate
location, or using special lighting.
*Large Print Test. The test can be printed in a larger print size than standard.
•Out of Level Testing. The test may at a different level than the student’s
grade.
•Revised Test Format. The test booklet can be changed by increasing the space
between questions or reducing the number of questions on a page.
•Revised Test Directions. The directions for administering the test can be
changed by emphasizing key words or simplifying the language.
•Aids and/or Aides. The student can have help or special equipment to enhance
vision or hearing, masks to cover a portion of the test, markers to maintain a
place, readers to repeat questions, reading or signing passages, cues to
maintain on-task behavior, equipment to record responses, pointers, or
communication boards.
Are all accommodations that are used during instruction allowed for testing?
Accommodations used in testing should not give students with special needs an
unfair advantage. For example, it may not be appropriate to read a reading test
to a student. Decisions about accommodations depend on the type of test.
An accommodation should be considered if it:
•is based on the child’s need
•is already provided in the child’s instruction
•does not give an unfair advantage, and
•does not change the nature of what is being tested.
Who decides whether accommodations are used and if so, which one(s)? Persons
familiar with the test and with the student should make decisions about
accommodations. The Individualized Education Program (IEP) team made up of
parents, the classroom teacher, program or school administrator and specialists
is in the best position to make these decisions.
How do I learn more about test accommodations?
For more information, contact your child’s teacher, counselor, or principal or
California's guidelines for participation of students with disabilities in the
Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Commonly Used Tests in
Educational Assessments
This Information is Presented Only To Inform
Return to Top
BASC-2:
Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition
Comprehensive system for measuring behavior and emotions in
Ages: 2-0 through 21-11 (TRS and PRS); 8-0 through college age (SRP)
Administration Time: 10-20 minutes (TRS and PRS), 30 minutes The Behavior
Assessment System for Children (BASC) holds an exceptional track record for
providing a complete picture of a child’s behavior.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
BRIGANCE® Readiness:
Strategies and Practice
by Albert H. Brigance
Grades Pre-K–Grade 1
Now with updated content and illustrations, this comprehensive resource features
teaching activities, techniques, and references. You’ll meet the challenge of
different learning styles, abilities, and developmental levels.
Skill areas addressed include:
•general knowledge and comprehension
•gross-motor skills
•fine-motor skills
•self-help skills
•visual motor/visual discrimination skills
•general readiness skills
•early reading, writing, and math skills
Skill sections include an objective, rationale, skill sequence, teaching
recommendations, and indications of and possible reasons for learning
difficulties.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
BRIGANCE® Inventory of Early
Development–II (IED–II)
by Albert H. Brigance
Developmental Age: Birth–7
Make confident intervention decisions with the IED–II. It complies with Early
Reading First, Reading First, I.D.E.A., and Head Start.
The IED–II serves as both a diagnostic instrument and criterion-referenced
classroom assessment, with new features:
•normed/standardized option for key skill areas
•updated developmental age references
•additional social-emotional assessments
•expanded functional skills sequences for assessing incremental gains
The primary, or milestone, assessments are appropriate for assessing most
children to:
•provide ongoing consistent and holistic assessment, connecting pre-K, K, and
the early grades
•identify developmental age
•pinpoint learning problems
•monitor and document progress
•create instructional objectives
If more complex developmental delays are present, the Comprehensive Skills
Sequences are helpful for tailoring in-depth assessment or instructional
planning.
The new IED–II Standardization and Validation Manual provides the data necessary
to:
•accurately compute chronological age
•convert raw scores to quotients
•convert quotients to percentiles
•determine age-equivalent scores
•derive instructional ranges
•determine combined adaptive behavior score
Whether using the IED–II for criterion-referenced or standardized testing, it is
helpful to have one reference copy per building of the Manual.
The IED–II correlates to Head Start Child Outcomes Framework
BRIGANCE® Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills–Revised (CIBS–R)
by Albert H. Brigance
Grades Pre-K–9
•identify performance levels
•set instructional goals
•report progress
Keep pace with today's assessment needs:
•combines criterion-referenced assessment with normed/standardized test option
for key skill areas
•complies with I.D.E.A., NCLB, and state standards
The Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills—Revised:
•takes less time, while providing more useful information than many other tests
•assesses specific areas of educational need
•facilitates development of performance goals
•provides indicators of progress on specific skills
•facilitates reporting to staff and parents
•is normed in key skill areas for multidisciplinary or classroom-based
administration
•can be used for alternate assessment situations
The 154 assessments—readiness, speech, listening, research and study skills,
reading, spelling, writing, and math—provide a wealth of choices. Teachers pick
and choose assessments according to individual student needs. The results are
expressed in terms of skills mastered or not mastered. Each skill section begins
with step-by-step instructions.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Criterion-referenced CIBS–R
The CIBS–R:
•provides ongoing, consistent, and holistic assessment
•identifies present level of performance
•monitors growth and reports progress
•connects assessment with instruction
•facilitates IEPs
Normed/Standardized Test Options
The standardized portions of the CIBS–R span grades pre-K–6. They meet state and
federal assessment requirements and:
•help identify children with learning disabilities, giftedness, or other
exceptionalities
•produce grade equivalents, percentiles, and quotients in six of seven I.D.E.A.-designated
achievement areas
CIBS–R Standardization and Validation Manual
When normed or standardized data is needed, students can be accurately and
fairly compared to other students in key skill areas:
Readiness—derives composite scores for:
•general knowledge and language
•gross-motor skills
•graphomotor
•reading
•writing
•math skills
Grades 1–6—ten key assessments include:
•basic reading skills
•reading comprehension
•listening comprehension
•written expression
•mathematics
Use them to identify the need for further testing or derive scores for
information processing.
For visually-impaired students: The American Printing House for the Blind offers
supplements for this program. Learn more at www.aph.org (Supplements may include
Braille translation, large print reproduction, or audio cassettes).
CIBS–R Components
For criterion-referenced and standardized testing:
Inventory—directions for administration, assessor pages, student pages,
comprehensive and supplemental skill sequences
Student Record Book—tracks and records assessments administered, responses,
progress, and instructional objectives
Class Record Book (1:30 Children)—matrix for group of skills assessed, skills
mastered, and objectives
Student Profile Test Booklet —student pages for seven grade-placement tests
determine need for further assessment, collect placement data, or use for
alternate assessment
Goals and Objectives Writer Software CD—facilitates writing IEPs
For standardized testing, add:
Standardization and Validation Manual
•norming data and research for internal consistency and test reliability
•tables for quotients, percentiles, and grade-equivalents
•reproducible scoring sheets
Screener Test Booklet, Grades 1-6
•assessor and student pages for the three Screener assessments—reading
comprehension, sentence writing, and math computation—a single convenient
booklet eliminates the need to reproduce Manual pages
Standardized Scoring Sheets, Readiness or Grades 1–6
•record raw scores, quotients, percentiles, grade equivalents, and instructional
ranges to share with staff and parents
•triplicate forms eliminate need to reproduce Manual pages
Standardized Scoring Conversion Software CD
•save time and effort—features error-free calculation of chronological age and
conversion of raw scores to quotients, percentiles, and grade equivalents
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
BRIGANCE® Employability
Skills Inventory
by Albert H. Brigance
Return to Top
Secondary Special Ed, Vocational, ESL Programs
Authentic assessment of basic skills and employability skills allows you to
assess, monitor, and plan targeted instruction.
Extensive criterion-referenced tool assesses basic skills and employability
skills in the context of job-seeking or employment situations:
•reading grade-placement
•rating scales
•career awareness and self-understanding
•reading skills
•speaking and listening
•job-seeking skills and knowledge
•preemployment writing
•math skills and concepts
For beginners and veterans alike, go to CAtraining.com for effective, consistent
intruction online 24/7
The ESI is a flexible and convenient authentic assessment. No special training
or materials are required. Assessment results, recorded in the Learner Record
Book, pinpoint known skills and those yet to be learned. The Inventory helps
instructors and learners to plan, monitor, and assess learning growth.
Quick Screens measure students' skill level to aid in determining where
assessment needs to begin. Rating Scales assist with evaluating subjective
items, such as aptitude or attitude. Supplemental and Related Skill Sequences
list additional, higher-level skills and serve as a guide for curriculum
planning.
The ESI correlates with CASAS standards, SCANS foundation skills, the Perkins
Act, and supports the Workforce Investment Act.
New Goals and Objectives CD for the ESI helps you easily create lists of goals
and objectives. Save, edit, print, or export and add to your school's IEP forms.
Components
Inventory
*7-ring binder with more than 200 pages, including reproducible pages for group
assessment
*appendices correlate the ESI with P.L. 94-142, and the JTPA, Perkins Act,
Americans with Disabilities Act, Fair Employment Law, and Immigration Act
*Inventory supports the objectives of the Workforce Investment Act
*ongoing record of assessments, objectives, and progress
*easy to record
*aids communication with learners and staff
Class Record Book
•matrix of skills assessed for a group of 15 learners
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Conners' Rating Scales -
Revised Return to Top
Purpose: Designed to assess attention-deficit/hyperactivity (ADHD) and related
problems in children.
Population: Children, aged 3 years through 17 years.
Score: Short and long versions of parent, teacher, and self-report forms with
subscales.
Time: 20 minutes or less, longer for reading disabilities, ESL, or psychiatric
problems.
Author: C. Keith Conners
Publisher: MHS
Description: The Connors Rating Scale - Revised (CRS-R) updates the original
Conners’ Rating Scale, provides three scales rather than two, with long and
short versions of each scale. The “Hyperactivity Index” had been renamed the
Conners’ Global Index, and is included on the forms for teachers and parents.
While the long versions require more time to complete, they correspond more
closely to the criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV, APA, 1994). The short version is useful when
time is limited or when repeated administrations are needed.
Scoring: Computer programs are available for scoring, calculating standardized
T-scores from raw scores, and providing graphic display and a report of the
results.
Reliability: The coefficient alphas for internal reliability were highly
satisfactory
for the normative groups. For the long form there was a range from .728 to .942
and .857 to .938 for the short form of the CRS-R, indicating that the CRS-R
subscales are accurate in measuring the constructs they were intended to
measure.
Validity: One The CRS-R has been compared to the CDI, The CRS, and the CPT
overall index. Correlations were also done between the teacher, parent, and
adolescent ratings. The results indicate that the CRS-R does in fact identify
childhood and adolescent ADHD behavioral problems and psychopathology.
Validity studies are continuing.
Norms: The normative sample consisted of over 8000 cases. Data are from over
200 schools in over 45 states and 10 provinces throughout the US and Canada
for parents, teacher and self-reports was included.
Suggested use: The main use of the CRS-R is for the assessment of ADHD. The
subscales however provide information useful for assessment of conduct
problems, cognitive problems, family problems, emotional, anger control and
anxiety problems. The CRS-R can be used for screening, for treatment
monitoring, as a research instrument, and as a clinical diagnostic aid.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Iowa Tests of Basic Skills® (ITBS®),
Form A
Copyright 2001
The ITBS Form A measures the skills and achievement of students from
Kindergarten through grade 8. Developed at The University of Iowa and backed
by a tradition of more than 70 years of educational research and test
development experience, the ITBS provides an in-depth assessment of students’
achievement of important educational objectives. Tests in reading, language
arts,
mathematics, social studies, science, and information sources yield reliable and
comprehensive information both about the development of students’ skills and
about their ability to think critically.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Return to Top
Key Math Diagnostic Inventory
of Essential Mathematics
This battery of three subtests measures concepts and skills across 13 content
threads or strands. The three subtests assess:
1. Basic Concepts
Numeration
Rational Numbers
Geometry
2. Operations
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Mental Computation
3. Applications
Measurement
Time & Money
Estimation
Interpreting Data
Problem Solving
Student performance in each of these strands provides a comprehensive profile
for teachers to review. Specific math activities can be integrated into
curricula to
develop areas of weakness and build upon strengths.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
KTEA-II: Kaufman Test of
Educational Achievement,
Comprehensive Form
The KTEA-II is an individually administered battery that gives you an assessment
of the key academic skills in reading, math, written language (new), and oral
language (new).
Age Range: 4 1/2 through 25 (Comprehensive Form), 4 1/2 through 90+ (Brief
Form) Administration Time: Comprehensive Form—(PreK-K) 25 minutes; (Grades 1-2)
50 minutes; (Grades 3+) 70 minutes; Brief Form (4 1/2 to 90 years old)—20-30
minutes
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
PIAT-R/NU: Peabody Individual
Achievement
Test-Revised-Normative
Range: Grades K-12, ages 5-0 through 22-11suggested for: School and clinical psychologists, counselors, learning
specialists, social workers, and personnel managers.
Administration Time: 60 minutes
Simple multiple-choice format helps assess children with severe disabilities.
Six subtests ensure a comprehensive assessment
ASSIST report provides scores and a student performance narrative on each
subtest and composite
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children--4th Edition
It is an individually administered clinical instrument for assessing the
cognitive ability of children aged 6 years through 16 years 11 months.
WISC IV has 4 composite scores (instead of the 2 we had with the WISC III). Full
Scale IQ (FSIQ) is comprises of the four composite scores.
1.Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) 2. Reasoning Index (PRI) 3.Working Memory
Index (WMI) 4.Processing Speed Index (PSI)
List of the Subtest under each of the four Indexes: (key= "( )" indicated that
the subtest is not included in the index total score.)
Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI):
1.Similarities
2.Vocabulary
3.Comprehension
4.(Information)
5.(Word Reasoning)
Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI):
1.Block Design
2.Picture Concepts
3.Matrix Reasoning
4.(Picture Completion)
Working Memory Index (WMI):
1.Digit Span
2.Letter-Number Sequencing
3.(Arithmetic)
Processing Speed Index (PSI):
1.Coding
2.Symbol Search
3.(Cancellation)
The WISC-IV has a total of 15 subtests, 10 are retained from the WISC-III These
are the five new subtests:
1.Word Reasoning
2.Matrix Reasoning
3.Letter-Name Sequencing
4.Symbol Search
5.Cancellation
Object Assembly subtest from the WISC III is gone.
On the WISC III there was Picture Arrangement, now on the WISC IV there is
Picture Concepts, under Perceptual Reasoning Index. (Not sure if it is testing
the same type of information or not. Not to be confused with the Picture
Completion is on both versions of the WISC).
Scoring:
Current reports shows that most students re-tested with the WISC-IV will have
approximately a 5 point discrepancy, lower (to the negative) because of this
newer version of WISC, it's novelty and it's increased difficulty.
The good news is that the WISC IV has been normed on normal peers and for
special education populations:
Mental Retardation (MR), Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD),
Learning Disabilities (LD), both AD/HD and LD, Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI),
etc.
With 4 composite scores (vs. 2 as is the case with the WISC III), there is no
standard discrepancy formula, it now all has to be evaluated in terms of the
child's ability, test results, current educational functioning, achievement test
expectations based on ability, evaluation of the subtests as well as evaluation
of the composite sets.
Some evaluators have suggested that a 19 point discrepancy in the VCI/PRI
composites may warrant further investigation.
Standard deviation is 15 points, it is not clear that these score will tell
enough about the child's areas of weakness.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children--SPANISH EDITION
The first cognitive ability measure of its kind with norms appropriate for the
diverse U.S. Hispanic population.
The WISC®–IV Spanish allows you to reliably assess the intellectual ability of
Spanish-speaking children and adolescents. WISC–IV Spanish is both a translation
and adaptation of the WISC–IV, the most widely used intelligence measure for
children in the U.S. This individually administered battery provides a
comprehensive measure of intellectual ability of Spanish language-dominant
children ages 6 through 16 years.
Features
• Consists of the same 10 core subtests as WISC–IV, plus 4 of the 5 supplemental
subtests (excludes Word Reasoning); comparable administration time
• Tests the same constructs as WISC–IV: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual
Reasoning, Working Memory, Processing Speed, and Full Scale IQ
• Scores calibrated to WISC–IV norms
• Test items with colorful, engaging artwork are appropriate for all Hispanic
cultures
Benefits
• Reflects the sound psychometric properties of a Wechsler® instrument
• WISC–IV items modified to minimize cultural bias across multiple countries of
origin
• Children are tested in Spanish, but compared to all U.S. children the same age
• Supplemental demographic tables allow additional interpretation compared to
all Hispanic children and subgroups of the Hispanic population
• School districts can maintain consistency by using the WISC–IV tests across
both English- and Spanish-speaking students
A Valid, Reliable Measure of Intellectual Ability in Spanish-speaking Children
and Adolescents
Easy to administer and score, the WISC–IV Spanish is appropriate for evaluating:
• Spanish-speaking, Limited English Proficient (LEP), and other bilingual
students for educational diagnosis and services and neurocognitive evaluation
• Spanish-speaking individuals who have immigrated to the U.S.
***Carefully calibrated to the WISC-IV English with a sample drawn from several
countries of origin - Mexico, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Central and
South America.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Woodcock Johnson III
The WJ III Tests of Achievement has two parallel forms (A and B) that are
divided
into two batteries—Standard and Extended. The Standard Battery includes tests
1 through 12 that provide a broad set of scores. The 10 tests in the Extended
Battery provide more in-depth diagnostic information on specific academic
strengths and weaknesses. Examiners can administer the Standard Battery
either alone or with the Extended Battery.
New Features
The WJ III Tests of Achievement includes:
7 new tests
8 new clusters
4 oral language tests
Expanded broad achievement clusters with 3 tests to measure basic skills,
fluency, and application.
A revised procedure for evaluating intra-achievement discrepancies that now
include oral language.
Expanded reading tests containing more items to measure early reading
performance.
WJ III Audio is available Separately on CD
The WJ III Tests of Cognitive Abilities is based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC)
theory of cognitive abilities, which combines Cattell and Horn's Gf-Gc theory
and
Carroll's three-stratum theory. The CHC theory provides the most
comprehensive framework available for understanding the structure of human
cognitive abilities.
The Standard Battery consists of tests 1 through 10, and the Extended Battery
includes tests 11 through 20. Depending on the purpose and extent of the
assessment, examiners can use the Standard Battery alone or in conjunction
with the Extended Battery.
New Features
8 new tests that measure information-processing abilities, including tests of
working memory, planning, naming speed, and attention5 new cognitive clusters; 2 additional clusters available when cognitive and
achievement batteries are used togetherModified organization and interception plan that increases depth and breadth of
coverageExpanded cognitive factor structure so that two to three tests clearly measure
different narrow aspects of a broader abilityClusters and tests grouped into three broad cognitive areas: Verbal Ability,
Thinking Ability, and Cognitive EfficiencyExpanded procedures for evaluating ability/achievement discrepanciesWJ III Audio is available Separately on CD
Diagnostic Supplement to the Tests of Cognitive Abilities
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Defining Assessments--Written
by 650A Students
There is sometimes confusion regarding the terms "assessment" and "testing."
While they are related, they are not synonymous. Testing is the administration
of specifically designed and often standardized educational and psychological
measures of behavior and is a part of the assessment process. Assessment, also
known as evaluation, can be seen as a problem- solving process (Swanson &
Watson, 1989) that involves many ways of collecting information about the
student.
Information Gathering Process
Roth-Smith (1991) suggests that this information- gathering process involves:
•observing the student's interactions with parents, teachers, and peers;
•interviewing the student and significant others in his or her life;
•examining school records and past evaluation results;
•evaluating developmental and medical histories;
•using information from checklists completed by parents, teachers, or the
student;
•evaluating curriculum requirements and options;
•evaluating the student's type and rate of learning during trial teaching
periods;
•using task analysis to identify which task components already have been
mastered and in what order unmastered skills need to be taught; and
•collecting ratings on teacher attitude towards students with disabilities, peer
acceptance, and classroom climate. (Roth-Smith, 1991, p. 307)
Clearly, gathering information about the student using such a variety of
techniques and information sources can be expected to shed considerable light
upon the student's strengths and needs, the nature of his or her disability and
how it affects educational performance, and what type of instructional goals and
objectives should be established for the student. More detail about many of
these methods of collecting information about the student will be presented
throughout this News Digest.
Common Observational Techniques
Observing the student's environment(s) and his or her behavior within those
environments can identify the factors that are influencing the student. For the
information from observations to be useful, the team must first define the
purpose for the observation and specify:
•Who will make the observation;
•Who or what will be observed;
•Where the observation will take place (observing a range of situations where
the student operates is recommended);
•When the observation will take place (a number of observations at different
times is also important); and
•How the observations will be recorded. (Wallace, Larsen, & Elksnin, 1992, p.
12).
Anecdotal Records
The observer describes incidents or behaviors observed in a particular setting
in concrete, narrative terms (as opposed to drawing inferences about feelings or
motives). This type of record allows insight into cause and effect by detailing
what occurred before a behavior took place, the behavior itself, and
consequences or events that occurred after the behavior.
Event Recording
The observer is interested in recording specific behavioral events (such as how
many times the student hits or gets out of his or her seat). A tally sheet
listing the behaviors to be observed and counted is useful; when the observer
sees the behavior of interest, he or she can simply make a tick mark on the
sheet.
Duration Recording
This method usually requires a watch or clock, so that a precise measurement of
how much time a student spends doing something of concern to the teacher or
assessment team (e.g., talking to others, tapping, rocking) can be recorded.
Time- sampling Recording
With this technique observers count the number of times a behavior occurs during
a specific time interval. Rather than observe for long periods of time and tally
all incidences of the behavior causing concern, the observer divides the
observation period into equal time units and observes and tallies behavior only
during short periods of time. Based upon the time sampling, predictions can then
be made about the student's total behavior.
Checklists and Rating Scales
A checklist usually requires the observer to note whether a particular
characteristic is present or absent, while a rating scale typically asks the
observer to note the degree to which a characteristic is present or how often a
behavior occurs. There are many commercially available checklists and rating
scales, but they may be developed locally as well.
Interviews
Interviewing the student in question, his or her parents, teachers, and other
adults or peers can provide a great deal of useful information about the
student. Parents, for example, may be able to provide detailed information about
the child's academic or medical background. It is especially important that they
contribute their unique, "insider" perspective on their child's functioning,
interests, motivation, difficulties, and behavior in the home or community. They
may have valuable information to share about possible solutions to the problems
being noted. Teachers can provide insight into the types of situations or tasks
that the child finds demanding or easy, what factors appear to contribute to the
child's difficulties, and what has produced positive results (e.g., specific
activities, types of rewards) (Wodrich & Joy, 1986). The student, too, may have
much to say to illuminate the problem. "All persons interviewed should be asked
if they know of information important to the solution of the academic or
behavior problem that was not covered during the interview" (Hoy & Gregg, 1994,
p. 44).
Organizing interview results is essential. Hoy and Gregg (1994) suggest that the
interviewer might summarize the "perceptions of each person interviewed in a way
that conveys similarities and differences in viewpoints" (p. 46), including:
•perceptions of the primary problem and its cause,
•what attempts have been made to solve or address the problem,
•any recent changes in the problem's severity, and •student strengths and
weaknesses.
Selecting an Appropriate Test
Given the number of standardized tests available today, how does the individual
charged with testing select an appropriate test for a given student? Here are
some suggestions.
1.Consider the student's skill areas to be assessed, and identify a range of
tests that measure those skill areas. Useful books:
•Tests: A Comprehensive Reference for Assessments in Psychology, Education, and
Business (3rd edition) by Sweetland and Keyser (1991).
•A Consumer's Guide to Tests in Print (Hamill, Brown, & Bryant, 1992).
2.Investigate how suitable each test identified is for the student to be
assessed and select those that are most appropriate. A particularly valuable
resource for evaluating tests is the Mental Measurements Yearbook (Conoley &
Kramer, 1992), which describes tests in detail and includes expert reviews of
many tests.
Some questions professionals consider when reviewing a test are:
•According to the publisher or expert reviewers, what, specifically, is the test
supposed to measure? Is its focus directly relevant to the skill area(s) to be
assessed? Will student results on the test address the educational questions
being asked?
•Is the test reliable and valid?
•Is the content/skill area being assessed by the test appropriate for the
student, given his or her age and grade?
•If the test is norm-referenced, does the norm group resemble the student? This
point was mentioned above and is important for interpretation of results.
•Is the test intended to evaluate students, to diagnose the specific nature of a
student's disability or academic difficulty, to inform instructional decisions,
or to be used for research purposes?
•Is the test administered in a group or individually? By law, group tests are
not appropriate when assessing a child for the presence of a disability or to
determine his or her eligibility for special education.
•Does the examiner need specialized training in order to administer the test,
record student responses, score the test, or interpret results?
•Will the student's suspected disability impact upon his or her taking of the
test?
•How similar to actual classroom tasks are the tasks the child is asked to
complete on the test?
Primary Areas of Assessment
The primary areas in which students are assessed, which are: intelligence,
language, perceptual abilities, academic achievement, behavior, and
emotional/social development. When the disability is related to a medically
related condition (e.g., sensory deficit, orthopedic impairment, arthritis),
assessment information from physicians or other medical practitioners needs to
be included as well. More than one assessment technique should be used in any
given area, and the assessment team should clearly understand that each area
encompasses more than one ability.
Intelligence
While a person's intelligence is typically measured by an intelligence test,
there is considerable controversy over what, precisely, is meant by the term
"intelligence." It is important to know that different intelligence tests are
based upon different definitions of what constitutes intelligence. As a result,
different tests may measure different skills and abilities. It is critical,
therefore, that administrators of such tests "be completely aware of an author's
definition of intelligence when selecting and interpreting an intelligence test"
and "to view the scores as highly tentative estimates of learning ability that
must be verified by other evidence" (Wallace, Larsen, & Elksnin, 1992, p. 106).
Kamphaus (1993) summarizes a number of research findings related to the use of
intelligence tests:
1.Intelligence test scores are more stable for school-aged children than for
preschoolers and more stable among individuals with disabilities than those
without disabilities;
2.Intelligence test scores can change from childhood to adulthood;
3.It is likely that environmental factors, socioeconomic status, values, family
structure, and genetic factors all play a role in determining intelligence test
scores;
4.Factors such as low birth weight, malnutrition, anoxia (lack of oxygen), and
fetal alcohol exposure have a negative impact on intelligence test scores; and
5.Intelligence and academic achievement appear to be highly related.
Language
Language provides the foundation upon which communication, problem solving, and
expanding, integrating, analyzing, and synthesizing knowledge take place.
Deficits in language, therefore, can have a profound impact on the ability of an
individual to learn and function competently and confidently as he or she
interacts in the world.
Assessing a Child's Language Abilities. The IDEA's regulations provide a
definition of speech-language impairment as "a communication disorder such as
stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment
that adversely affects" a child's educational performance [34 CFR Section
300.7(b)(11)]. In more specific terms, a child with a speech disorder may have
difficulty in producing sounds properly, speaking in a normal flow or rhythm, or
using his or her voice in an effective way. A child with a language disorder
would have problems using or understanding the rules, sounds, or symbols that we
use to communicate with each other. This relates to language form, content,
and/or use, as discussed above (Heward & Orlansky, 1992). A child with a speech
impairment, a language impairment, or both, would be eligible for services under
the IDEA.
It is important to realize, however, that "standardized diagnostic tests are
generally insensitive to the subtleties of ongoing functional communication"
(Swanson & Watson, 1989, p. 155). Therefore, in addition to or in place of
standardized tests, a typical speech/language evaluation should include
obtaining a language sample that seeks to capture how the student performs in an
actual communication situation. Language samples can be obtained through
checklists or observational recording systems, or through informally conversing
with the student. Great care must be taken to ensure that assessment of students
is culture-free and dialect-sensitive, as many children will speak nonstandard
English or another language entirely.
Perceptual Abilities
Perceptual abilities determine how individuals perceive information and how they
respond. These abilities can be subdivided into at least four general areas:
visual-perceptual, auditory-perceptual, perceptual-motor skill, and attention.
Assessing a student in these areas is intended to determine strengths and
weaknesses in information and sensory processing and can help the assessment
team gain an understanding of how the child learns best.
Visual-Perceptual Ability
Visual perception includes the ability to discriminate between two or more
visual stimuli, locate a particular figure within a larger scene, and understand
position in space. Perceptual skills include detecting specific colors, shapes,
and sizes. In reading, it requires the ability to detect the visual features of
a letter or word so that the 26 letters of the alphabet can be distinguished
from each other. The student must also discriminate between ten written digits.
Auditory-Perceptual Ability
Auditory perception includes the ability to detect certain auditory features
such as changes in volume, discrimination of vowel or consonant sounds, and
nonphonemic sound discrimination (e.g., the sound of a bell from the sound of a
buzzer). In a school setting, then, the student would need the ability to
discriminate between different sounds, identify spoken words that are the same
or different, and hear sounds in order.
Perceptual-Motor Ability
Most assessments include one or more measures of perceptual-motor ability. It
has been an assumption of many educators that perceptual-motor or visual-motor
problems are often associated with learning problems and, therefore, should be
included in most assessment batteries (Salvia & Ysseldyke, 1991). Historically,
tests of perceptual-motor skill have been second only to intelligence tests in
terms of use in the assessment of school-aged children. Tests of
perceptual-motor skill or perceptual-motor integration most often ask students
to copy geometric designs that are placed in front of them. This requires the
child to see the design, attend to and remember the relevant features, and then
carry out the motor actions necessary to reproduce the design on paper.
Attention
The ability to focus on a given activity for extended periods is important if a
student is to take in information or complete the day-to-day tasks in school.
Keogh and Margolis (1976) have suggested three phases of attention: the ability
to (a) come to attention; (b) focus attention; and (c) maintain attention. The
issue of "selective" attention must also be considered here. Students must be
able to attend, and they must be able to sustain attention on the most relevant
stimuli. Difficulties in any of the three phases of attention can interfere with
a student's ability to learn or share what he or she knows in a consistent
fashion. While the ability to attend effectively is seldom assessed through a
formalized instrument, information related to attention can be gathered through
classroom observations and observations of test behaviors.
Academic Achievement
Academic achievement refers to how well the child is performing in core skill
areas such as reading, mathematics, and writing. Assessment batteries typically
include an individual measure of academic achievement, although it is important
to realize that standardized achievement tests may be inappropriate for use with
immigrant or minority group children. Information about the child's placement
(i.e., below, at, or above) in his or her peer group and knowledge about the
specific skills the child possesses are important both for the planning and
evaluation of instruction.
Behavior and Emotional and Social Development
Behavior -- how a student conducts himself or herself in school -- is often a
key factor in educational performance. Certainly, behavior that is off-target
academically or socially -- inattention, being out of seat, talking too much,
hitting or biting, skipping school -- can detract from learning. When a
student's behavior appears to be interfering with school performance and
relationships with others, or when that behavior is maladaptive, bizarre, or
dangerous, it becomes important to assess the student's behavior (when the
behavior occurs, how often, and for what reasons) as well as his or her
emotional and social development. Wallace, Larsen, and Elksnin (1992) "stress
the need to take an ecological perspective when assessing a student's
nonacademic behaviors in order to obtain a complete picture and examine the
relationship between the behavior and the environment" (pp. 164-165).
Assessing Problem Behavior
For children exhibiting signs of emotional, social, or behavioral problems, the
assessment team will generally conduct a behavioral assessment. The goal of
behavioral assessment is to gain an increased understanding of how environmental
factors may be influencing the child's behavior. This includes identifying (a)
what expectations and rules are established by significant others in the
settings where the problem behavior occurs, and (b) what "specific variables in
a particular situation . . . may be maintaining problem behaviors" (Berdine &
Meyer, 1987, p. 151). This knowledge will then be used directly in designing
intervention strategies.
"Behavioral assessment depends on keen observation and precise measurement"
(Swanson & Watson, 1989, p. 246). Assessment is tied to observing a specific
situation (e.g., how the child responds during lunch or reading) at a particular
point in time. It is important that a behavioral assessment involve multiple
measures and take place in various settings (e.g., the classroom, school
playground, chorus, home) and at different times during the day (e.g., morning,
afternoon, and night). The ability to observe and record behavior, select the
most appropriate places to observe the child, and find efficient and clear means
of interpreting results are all critical in behavioral assessment.
Assessing Emotional and Social Development
No child lives in a vacuum. His or her relative freedom from internal and
external stressors, ability to interact with others comfortably, and ability to
respond consistently and positively in the learning environment all are
important for the child to benefit maximally from school experiences. In
assessing a child's emotional and social adjustment, questions need to be
answered related to the child's intrapersonal and interpersonal experience.
Assessment of the child's intrapersonal world involves knowledge about how the
child views him or herself, how the child responds emotionally, how much
conflict or anxiety he or she is currently experiencing, the degree to which the
individual believes that personal behaviors can actually make a difference in
his or her own life, his or her tolerance for frustration, and general activity
level. Interpersonal characteristics are related to how the individual views the
world and other people. Such characteristics are developed in response to the
child's experiences within the environment. If the child sees the world as a
hostile place and views people as untrustworthy, negative interactive patterns
and behaviors may emerge.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Assessment
From Instructor magazine, this site has a wealth of information on all aspects of assessment
ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST FOR MATH ASSESSMENT PORTFOLIOS
This site will give you instructions on how to compile a list that will bring together all of the various assessment strategies placed in
the portfolio for a given math concept.
Authentic Portfolios
This article covers the topics of why to keep Authentic Portfolios, how to get started, suggested software, suggested hardware and references .
Building A Portfolio Learning Environment
This site has how to's, examples, definitions, etc. for you to access.
Electronic Portfolio Home Page
This site has links to examples of electronic research portfolios.
Instructor - The Power of Portfolios
An informative article on portfolios including how to get started, communicating with parents, what to include, etc.
Instructor - "Help Students Develop Standards for Evaluating Their
Work"
A teacher describes how he guided his students to develop their own standards for evaluating their work and decide what goes into their portfolios.
Instructor- Measuring Student Progress
This article answers several questions from What do we mean by assessment — as opposed to grading to?how do we explain it all to parents.
Portfolio Assessment
Another good article on the why and how of using portfolios.
Self-Assessment In Portfolios
How to use portfolios in reading in an attempt to make literature more challenging, integrated and meaningful for students.
STUDENT PORTFOLIOS: ADMINISTRATIVE USES
Another great how to article.
Teaching Portfolio
How Washington State University makes use of teaching portfolios.